CBSE ANNUAL PAPER - 1999

POLIITICAL SCIENCE

(SET-I)

Time Allowed : 3 Hours

Maximum Marks : 100

General Instructions :

(i) All questions are compulsory.

(ii) Marks for each question are indicated against it.

(iii) Question numbers 1 to 10 are of two marks each. the answer to these questions should not exceed 50 words each.

(iv) Question numbers 11 to 20 are of four marks each. The answer to these questions should not exceed 100 words each.

(v) Question numbers 21 to 25 are of eight marks each. The answer to these questions should not exceed 200 words each.

1. Custom : Custom are habitual courses of social action. Life, in primitive societies, was almost wholly regulated by customary rules. These were rules of conduct resting upon general acceptance. Out of evident utility, habits or general desire for order and justice, these rules came into operation in the early ages. Though customs, only when they are recognised by the state, acquire the status of law. No state can fail to recognise them. Customary laws form an integral part as much of English laws as of Indian laws.

2. Religion : Customs, in primitive communities, used to pass for laws as in most cases these had religious sanction. The early laws of Rome were a body of technical religious rules. In India both Hindu law and Mohammedan laws derive their origin from religious sources.

What do you understand by Constitutional Law ?

Constitutional rights are the elementary rights of the individual which are considered essential to the citizens. These rights are duly protected in case of violation by a government authority. Constitutional rights are embodied in the constitution of a country.

Welfare State : What does "welfare" mean ? It is a combination of several factors. The most important is that the wealth produced must be distributed as widely as possible. The ancient Indian statesman Kautilya also envisaged this kind of a state in his book Arthasastra. The state, according to him, must increase what is there and distribute what has been increased. In today's world, as a result of industrialisation, things can be mass produced and hence can be distributed easily. The welfare state takes advantage of this situation to meet the problems of mass poverty. It is a response to the situation in which there is poverty amidst plenty.

What is the anarchist view of State activity ?

'State is an unnecessary evil' this theory has been propounded by the anarchist thinkers. According to Kropatkin "The state is without any natural or historical justification. It is opposed to man's naturally co-operative instinct". This theory is a product of 19th and 20th centuries. The word 'anarchism' has been taken from the Greek word anarchia' meaning 'no government'. Hence it is a theory against the state and government. The anarchists think of an ideal society which is sans state interference of authority. This society would be based on the principles of individual freedom and de-centralization. This is a utopian theory. It is an impractical theory. Virtually, the state does not create obstruction. But a welfare state does all round development.

Political rights are the pillars of democracy. They translate democracy into reality. The three main political rights are as under -

(1) Right to Vote - The right to vote is a specific right which is given to the citizens without any discrimination is an ideal democratic system. Though this right, the voters determine the fate of a government. That is why this right must be used very carefully by the voters. Right to vote is not given to aliens, criminals, bankrupts and the citizens below 18 years.

(2) Right to contest election - Right to contest election is enjoyed by the citizens in every democratic state. However, some conditions for the candidate are laid down. For example, the representation of people's Act in our country does not allow the citizens holding an office of profit, the right to contest the election.

A voter in India is a citizen of India who fulfils the following conditions :
(1) Age of Voting : - The recognised age for exercising voting right is the attainment of the age of maturity of adulthood in the eye of the law of the land. The voting age in India has been reduced from 21 to 18.

(2) Residential Requirement : - A voter is expect to reside within the jurisdiction of his constituency for a certain minimum period of time, as laid down in the electoral laws.

What do you mean by countermanding of elections ?

When the election commission receives a report from the returning officer that the election procedure in a particular constituency has been violated due to violence or other unlawful means etc., it can countermanding election in that constituency.

Definition : A group of people coming together, having almost similar views coming to capture the government through which they cater to the interests of the people in general, constitute a political party.

Burke defined political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest upon some political principle in which they are agreed."

Write any two functions of a Panchayat Samiti.

(i) Panchayat Samiti does the following functions : - Drinking water supply, drainage, sanitation, establishment and maintenance of child welfare centres, prevention of epidemics, construction and maintenance of roads, removal of encroachment etc.

(ii) Distribution of improved seeds, soil conservation, distribution of fertilizers and agricultural implements, supervision over panchayats etc.

Describe the composition of the Planning Commission.

Composition of Planning Commission : - The debacle of Congress in the elections in 1967, a charge was introduced and the Prime Minister continued to work as its Chairman, but other Union Ministers were dropped. Now, besides the Prime Minister, the Commission had other ministers also as its members, besides permanent members Again a change was introduced by the Janta Government and besides the PM as its Chairman, and one Deputy Chairman, it included three Union Ministers holding the portfolios of Finance, Home and Defence as part-time members, or addition to this there were three other full-time members.

Describe the relationship between Law and Liberty.

Law and Liberty : Law lays down what a citizen is free to do and is not free to do. Since the state controls coercive power, its law is able to secure freedom to all by preventing coercion by an individual or group. Liberty does not mean absolute freedom to do whatever one wants. We often inflate our demands. An absolutely free society is an impossibility. Such a situation will lead to anarchy in which no one except the powerful will be able to exercise their freedom. We can be absolutely free in a vaccum in which there are no other individuals. This is so because the moment there are other individuals we shall begin to coerce each other for the fulfillment of our demands and wishes. Therefore, law and liberty are closely connected. Law may be a necessary evil and we may aim at minimum of law, but it is an inescapable condition necessary to secure freedom of all.

Some restrictions become necessary to enhance our liberty. Sometimes law restrains us in the name of public interest. The law of copyright, for example, restrains man's freedom of speech and expression because if there were no such law, we would prevent authors from reaping the fruits of their labour. Similarly, restriction of freedom to secure equal treatment of all is one such example. We insist that same price be charged to say one, for buying the same articles. We do not encouraged people to open schools if they discriminate in the name of caste, religion, language or community.

But, as has been pointed out earlier, not every law in conducive to liberty. Law has often been abused. Not all laws are reasonable and just. Sometimes the authorities may promulgate a law in good faith but the decision they have made may be wrong or there may be no access to courts for justice so that there is no procedure for dealing with disputes except the will of executive.

What is the collectivist view of the State activity ?

The collectivist theory of state activity has lays stress on the primacy of the collective will. The collectivists maintain that man is an integral part of society. They say that there is no actual difference between the individual and society because their interests are spontaneous and harmonious.

Mention any four principles of Gandhian Directive Principles of State Policy.

Following principles are based on Gandhian programme of reconstruction : -

1. Organisation of village panchayats as effective units of self-government;

2. Promotion of cottage industries in the rural areas;

3. To pay special attention towards the educational and economic development of backward and weaker sections of community;

4. to bring about prohibition of the consumption, except for medical purposes, of intoxicating drinks and of drugs, which are injurious to health.

Define Rights. Mention any two economic rights.

Rights : The rights of the citizens are necessary for the creation of a better life for them. These provide external conditions necessary for the development of individual personality. The state exists for the enrichment of human personality. It is not an all embracing Leviathan, but just a necessary contrivance for human development. All claims are not to be regarded as rights because rights are only those claims which are recognised as such by society and enforced by the state. Without such a recognition rights are empty claims. To be a right, it must aim at the good of society, and it must be recognised as such by the general opinion of the society. Therefore, in any state, the continent of rights has to be determined according to the general opinion or consensus of the society. We might try to change them from time to time in order to make them more humane, but ultimately it is the society which determines the character and the content of our rights.

(i) Freedom of property

(ii) Freedom of profession, occupation, trade or business.

Mention any four measures which ensure representation of minorities.

Following methods have been suggested for securing the representation of minorities : -

1. Proportional Representation - The essential idea is to ensure by distributing votes, rather than voters, that the number of seats won by a political party shall be approximately proportionate to the votes cast for that party. There are two main schemes for achieving this purpose :

(i) Single Transferable vote system

(ii) List System

2. Commulative vote system : This system involves multi member constituencies. the voter has the right to cast as many votes as there are seats in the constituencies. But his votes may be spread over several candidates or con concentrated on one candidate only. Hence, voters belonging to a minority party may elect their representative by concentrating all their votes on him.

3 Limited vote system : There are multi - member constituencies. The voters are allowed to cast a certain number of votes which is less than the number of seats to be filled. Thus, if there are six seats in a constituency, each voter is given the right to cast only five cots or less. By limiting the number of cotes of each voter, the system acts as a check on the monopolisation of representation in a constituency by a sing political party, and helps the minority to get at least one seat.

4 Communal Representation : Special arrangements are sometimes made for the representation of minority communities. There may be separate electorates for separate communities. Under British Rule, such a system was introduced in India. A second method of communal representation is the reservation of seats in a joint electorate. Under this system, the voters may cast their own. But, in deciding the result, a member of the community having reservation of seats, who gets the highest number of votes among the candidates of that community, will be declared elected, although candidates of other communities might have polled a large number of votes.

Suggest any four reforms which will ensure free and smooth elections.

To ensure free and fair parliamentary elections, some constitutional and legal safeguards have been provided. The Representation of People's Act 1951 was enacted and many amendments have been made to it. So far as election process is concerned the following provisions have been made.

1. One General Electoral Roll : According to the Constitution, there will be one electoral roll for every constituency. No citizen can be deprived of his right to vote on the basis of religion, community, caste, etc.

2. Arranging the Polling Booths : In every constituency, for the facility of the voters a number of polling booths will be arranged. In 1980 elections these were 4,50,000.

3. Filing of Nominations : With the declaration of the date of election, the dates of filing nominations, for their withdrawals also are declared. Corrupt practices are banned.

4. Election Champaign : With the declaration of the date of election, the dates of filling nominations, for their withdrawals also are declared. Corrupt practices are banned.

What is public opinion ? Mention any two hindrance in the formation of sound public opinion.

In political Science, 'public opinion' cannot be defined easily, though the expression appears to be simple and self explanatory. As finer points out, in spite of extensive study on the subject, public opinion "is still perhaps lacking proper analytical definition." According to Bryce, "Public opinion is commonly used to denote the aggregate of the views men hold regarding matters that affect or interest the community." R.H. Solton says . " The term is usually applied to which people think and want for their common life ...... Public opinion in politics is not first what people think, nor even the part of their thinking, which they express in public : It is what they want to be made effective in practice. There are many things that people like and dislike but what matters in politics is what they like enough to demand, what they dislike enough to resist."

List two merits and two demerits of the multi-party system.

Following are the merits of multi-party system :

(a) Autocracy of Cabinet avoided : Dictatorship of the Cabinet is not possible if the Cabinet is not supported by a single majority party. The Cabinet will have to act wisely and within means to avoid a vote of non-confidence. In a Bi-party system the cabinet is confident of the support of the majority. Hence, it becomes dictatorial.

(b) Electors' choice widened : In a Bi-party system the election have to make a choice out of two parties only. Hence their choice is limited. In case multiple - party system prevails, the electors have ample choice. They feel more satisfied.

(c) Adequate representation to varied interests made possible : Multiple party alone can accord proper representation to all the vested interests. People of different interests find proper representation in political party of their choice.

(d) Individual's individuality retained : If individual's point of view is not represented in one party, he can afford to be a member of the other party. He is not obliged to merge his entity in one party if the latter is over assertive.

Demerits : -

(a) Legislature becomes arena of conflict : The legislature is apt to become an arena of conflict, if many parties exist in a country. The legislature becomes hot bed of intrigues and animosities, if different groups find representation in it. It effects legislation most adversely.

(b) It turns government unstable : Since in the multiple party system no party is in a position to capture the majority, a few groups will have to join hands to form the government. A government of this type commonly termed as a coalition government will be extremely unstable.

(c) Efficiency of administration impaired : When governments are unstable, efficiency of administration suffers a great deal. Continuity and consistency of policy is not possible.

(d) Sound opposition fails to develop : Sound and effective opposition which is the soul of parliamentary democracy fails to develop if there are multiple parties emerging out. France and India are the examples.

Suggest any four measures by which the working of rural local governments will improve.

(1) The 73rd amendment : - The 73rd amendment act of 1992 has provided a new form and direction to the Panchayati Raj system. Regular and periodic elections should be held for this purpose.

(2) Adequate representation to the weaker section : - To improve the working of rural local governments adequate representation should be given to the weaker sections, especially, the SCs, the STs and women.

(3) Adequate financial resources : - Adequate financial resources should be provided for developmental activities.

(4) Bureaucratic interference should be avoided : - The bureaucratic interference should be avoided to make the working of rural governments free and flawless. Its functioning should not be marred by red-tapism.

Describe the role of Planning Commission in bringing out socio-economic development in India.

Planning Commission : The Planning Commission is the outcome of an extra-constitutional growth. The resolution adopted by the Government of India on 15 March, 1950 declared the the "need for comprehensive planning based on a careful appraisal of resources and objective analysis of all the relevant factors has become imperative' and "The purposes can best be achieved through an organisation free from the burden of day - to - day administration, but in constant touch with the Government at the highest level."
Following functions were assigned to the Planning Commission :

(a) To 'make an assessment of material capital and human resources of the country, including technical, personnel and investigate the possibilities of augmenting such of these resources as are found to be deficient in relation to the nation's requirements' :

(b) To 'formulate a plan for the most effective and balanced utilization of the country's resources' :

(c) To 'define, on determination of priorities, the stage in which the plan should be carried out and propose the allocation of resources for the due completion of each stage' :

(d) To 'indicate the factors which are tending to retard economic development, and determine the conditions which, in view of the current social and political situation, should be established for the successful execution of the plan':

What do you mean by Socialism ? Explain its fundamental principles.

Socialism emerged as a reaction to the rise and development of capitalism. Laissez faire doctrine led to great difficulties in society. The economic power passed into the hands of a few. The majority lived in conditions of dire poverty. They had no freedom of choice because they were completely dependent on their wages even for bare survival.

Capitalism indeed increased the wealth of the nation. It led to unprecedented prosperity in Europe. Real wages went up everywhere. But very soon markets were fooded with goods. As the competition increased the system began to face crises. Production reached a saturation point. People began to apprehend that there might be a situation in which there were all sellers and no buyers. Cycles of boom and depression known as trade cycles, became frequent. Unemployment was common phenomenon. People began to ask why there was so much of poverty in the midst of plenty. Some of these reasons led Karl Marx to prophesy that capitalism contained within itself seeds of its own destruction. Socialism believed that capitalism is a negation of egalitarianism, it is inefficient and it disregards justice and happiness of all.

Principles : Socialism means the following inter-connected things :

(a) an egalitarian society: - Socialism insists on what G.D.H. Cole called human fellowship which denies or expels distinction of class, caste or colour. It aims at reasonable equality in society so that all are able to face each other on equal terms. It holds that there can be no genuine liberty without equality. Freedom cannot survive without security.

(b) Satisfaction of basic needs : It flows from the first. Socialists argue that the motive of profit ought to be replaced by the motive of service. Value should be decided by use and not by terms of exchange. What must be distributed depends not on where it will fetch the highest price, but where it is most needed. The wealth of the state ought to be so distributed that even the poorest can afford to satisfy his basic needs. We must ensure sufficiency to all before surplus is available to some.

(c) Common ownership : Socialism believes in common ownership and control of means of production, e.g., land, power, banks, etc. These should be administered in the interest of the whole rather than of the parts. Happiness of all is to be preferred to the happiness of the few. Socialists believe that from economic point of view an industry which is collective owned, will be more efficient and from the moral point of view more satisfying.

(d) Ideal of service : - Socialism emphasizes the responsibility of all citizens to the common good or general welfare. It protests against the harsh materialism and individualism of classical liberals. A capitalist society produces ugly conditions. It insists on too much specialisation. It deprives the artisan of his pride in his work. In the feudal period the craftsman used to make a complete thing all by himself. It used to be a matter of joy for him to find a reflection of his creative endeavours in it. But now man has been reduced to the status of a cog in the machine. Instead of producing a complete thing, he only produces a small part of it. He may not even know where the part he has produced would fit in . He becomes no more than a link in the chain of production. But he is further condemned to live in slums or to be condemned to stand in the market for weeks or months because his labour is not needed. He feels disgusted under these conditions of modern industry. The worker ceases to be a human being. It is this feature of the capitalist society against which Marx, Ruskin, Morris, Laski and Gandhi spoke. Gandhi denounced capitalism as immoral because it condones and even glorifies greed and avarice.

How are the Fundamental Rights protected by the Right to Constitutional Remedies ?

Right to Constitutional Remedies with reference to Article 32 : Rights are useless unless their infringement is prevented and enjoyment is secured. Article 32 confers on the Supreme Court the right to issue several writs which may be appropriate in a given case for the enforcement of the right.

(a) Habeas Corpus : It is regarded as the most valuable writ for protection of personal liberty. It provides a remedy for a person, who is wrongfully detained or restrained.

(b) Certiorari : This writ may be issued out of a superior court requiring that the record of the proceedings in some case or matter pending before an inferior court should be transmitted into the superior court to be there dealt with.

(c) Mandamus : This writ is issued when the court wants to compel a person or a body to perform his or her duty. In this way it is used to enforce the performance of public duties.

(d) Prohibition : This writ is issued by a superior court to an inferior court preventing the lower court from exercising jurisdiction which is not legally vested in it.

(e) Quo Waranto : When a person claims or usurps any office, franchise or liberty, the court may enquire the authority under which the claim is being made in order to decide whether the claim is rightfully made or not.

Evaluate the features of Indian Party System.

1. Unlike Britain : There are national as well as regional and local parties - Congress, Bhartiya Janata Party, CPI and CPI(M) are some of national parties.

2. Since its formulation the Indian National Congress has dominated the political life of the country. Not only at Centre but it had dominated States. The Sixth General Election signaled that the Congress had lost popularity in the States but latter on in 1971-72 it came back with thumping majority in the States as well as at the Centre. After the emergency it lost its hegemoney and Janata Party was voted to power. But in 1980 India Wave swept the polls and Congress regained its dominance in the States as well as at the Centre. Again in Eighth General Elections, Congress regained its dominance.

3. Marked with Alliances, Mergers and Disintegration's : - Indian Political parties, very often make alliances to form governments, to contest elections from particular constituencies and disintegration is yet another characteristics of the Indian Party System. Most of the parties have seen its split. The Congress Party saw its split in 1969 and in 1978 Communist Party was split into CPI and CPM.

4. Defection : The chronology of Indian Party System is infested with incidents of defection. Defection became a wide-spread and coarsely visible practice after the Fourth General Elections. An instance is cited, which gives quite amusing aspect of the defection ; it is about an MLA who defected five times to be a Minister only for five days. Leaders of national structure have been seen indulging in defection; for instance Jagjivan Ram, the leader of Janta Party in Lok Sabha defected to Congress (U) whereas Y.B. Chavan defected from Congress (U) to join Congress (I). However, this malady has been brought to close with the enactment of the Anti-Defection Bill.

5. Influence of Personality : Parties have fought and won the election in the name of a leader. Congress fought first three General Elections in the name of Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru and Mrs. Indira Gandhi. It is also interesting to note that whenever a leader has acquired prominence in the party he has formed his own party thereby making personality cult as one of the basis of the party-system in our country.

6. Incoherent Ideology : Hardly any party possesses a specific ideology. Divergent views, multi-ferrous approaches and confusing techniques are prevalent in party-system in India. Congress is a platform for the individuals having different ideas and disagreeing social and economic philosophies. Janata Party was an outcome of anti-congressists tendencies, all of these parties back coherent ideology.

7. Ineffective Opposition : It was only after the Fourth General Elections in 1967 that the opposition was faced by the Congress in the States. Many States saw non-congress Governments.

8. Communalism and Regionalism : In India parties exist having their roots in the factors of communalism and regionalism. Akali Dal in Punjab, Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League are some of the parties believing in the superiority of one community or the other whereas DMK and DAMK in Tamilnadu, are the parties having faith in regionalism.

"Unemployment must be checked by providing more and more employment opportunities for the success of Indian Democracy." Comment.

Unemployment and democracy are quite opposite to each other. Unemployment always hampers and obstructs the very progress and continuation of democracy. It slows down democratic process. it also negates the basic principle of democracy i.e. economic equality. Democracy loses its sheen in the presence of unemployment. Unemployment is a cancerous ailment. It eats up the very vitality of democracy. Unless we remove unemployment from country, we cannot think of an ideal democracy. Hence it must be eradicated to vitalize democracy.

Analyse the areas of co-operation and conflict between India and Sri Lanka.

One of the main disputes between India and Sri Lanka has been regarding the political status of Tamil people of Indian origin taken to Sri Lanka by the British as plantation labour. These Tamils are different from the original Tamils who had been in Sri Lanka for centuries.

Backed by the Tamil communities in South East Asia and Tamil Nadu, the LTTE provoked the Sri Lankan Army into retaliatory action leading to their encirclement in Jaffna peninsula in June 1987 giving rise to the fear or attack on large concentration of non-combatant Tamil population . It was in this tense atmosphere that the Rajive - Jaywardene Agreement was signed in July 1988. This Agreement provided for an Indian Peace-Keeping Force (IPKF) to oversee the surrender by the Tamil militants and for constituting the Eastern and Northern provinces of Sri Lanka into one administrative unit with an elected Provincial Council and a Chief Minister. The main desire was to solve the problem bilaterally and avoid intervention by an extra - regional power like the U.S.A. or British which would have further complicated matters.

To cement the relations between the two countries the Sri Lankan President M.S. Chandrika Kumaratunga visited India on December 27, 1998. This three - day visit boosted regional economic co-operation and social proximity between the two nations. India has made it very clear that she has no plan to play any mediatory role to resolve the Sri Lankan ethnic crisis. President Mr. K.R. Narayanan clearly expressed India's policy towards Sri Lankan, "we are conscious of the challenges that the people of Sri Lanka continue to face as they strive to live together in peace and harmony in a pluralistic society..... Sri Lanka will achieve peace and tranquility within the framework of its national unity and territorial integrity."